General Albert Sidney Johnston in the Civil War

General Albert Sidney Johnston in the Civil War A Kentucky native, General Albert Sidney Johnston was a notable Confederate commander during the early months of the Civil War. After graduating from West Point in 1826, he later moved to Texas and joined the Texas Army where he acted as aide-de-camp to General Sam Houston. Following service in the Mexican-American War, Johnston returned to the US Army and was commanding the Department of California when the Civil War began. He soon accepted a commission as a general in the Confederate Army and was tasked with defending the region between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. Considered one of the finest officers available at the start of the war, Johnston was mortally wounded at the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862. Early Life Born in Washington, KY on February 2, 1803, Albert Sidney Johnston was the youngest son of John and Abigail Harris Johnston. Educated locally through his younger years, Johnston enrolled at Transylvania University in the 1820s. While there he befriended the future president of the Confederacy, Jefferson Davis. Like his friend, Johnston soon transferred from Transylvania to US Military Academy at West Point. Two years Davis junior, he graduated in 1826, ranked eighth in a class of forty-one. Accepting a commission as a brevet second lieutenant, Johnston was posted to the 2nd US Infantry. Moving through posts in New York and Missouri, Johnston married Henrietta Preston in 1829. The couple would produce a son, William Preston Johnston, two years later. With the beginning of the Black Hawk War in 1832, he was appointed as chief of staff to Brigadier General Henry Atkinson, the commander of US forces in the conflict. Though a well-respected and gifted officer, Johnston was forced to resign his commission in 1834, to care for Henrietta who was dying of tuberculosis. Returning to Kentucky, Johnston tried his hand at farming until her death in 1836. Texas Revolution Seeking a fresh start, Johnston traveled to Texas that year and quickly became embroiled in the Texas Revolution. Enlisting as a private in the Texas Army shortly after the Battle of San Jacinto, his prior military experience allowed him to swiftly advance through the ranks. Shortly thereafter, he was named aide-de-camp to General Sam Houston. On August 5, 1836, he was promoted to colonel and made adjutant general of the Texas Army. Recognized as a superior officer, he was named commander of the army, with the rank of brigadier general, on January 31, 1837. In the wake of his promotion, Johnston was prevented from actually taking command after being wounded in a duel with Brigadier General Felix Huston. Recovering from his injuries, Johnston was appointed Secretary of War by Republic of Texas President Mirabeau B. Lamar on December 22, 1838. He served in this role for a little over a year and led an expedition against Indians in northern Texas. Resigning in 1840, he briefly returned to Kentucky where he married Eliza Griffin in 1843. Traveling back to Texas, the couple settled on a large plantation named China Grove in Brazoria County. Fast Facts: General Albert Sidney Johnston Rank: GeneralService: US Army, Confederate ArmyBorn: February 2, 1803 in Washington, KYDied: April 6, 1862 in Hardin County, TNParents: John and Abigail Harris JohnstonSpouse: Henrietta PrestonConflicts: Mexican-American War, Civil WarKnown For: Battle of Shiloh Mexican-American War With the outbreak of the Mexican-American War in 1846, Johnston assisted in raising the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers. Serving as the regiments colonel, the 1st Texas took part in Major General Zachary Taylors campaign in northeastern Mexico. That September, when the regiments enlistments expired on the eve of the Battle of Monterrey, Johnston convinced several of his men to stay and fight. For the remainder of the campaign, including the Battle of Buena Vista, Johnston held the title of inspector general of volunteers. Returning home at the wars end, he tended to his plantation. Battle of Buena Vista, 1847. Photograph Source: Public Domain The Antebellum Years Impressed with Johnstons service during the conflict, now-President Zachary Taylor appointed him a paymaster and major in the US Army in December 1849. One of the few Texas military men to be taken into regular service, Johnston held the position for five years and on average traveled 4,000 miles a year discharging his duties. In 1855, he was promoted to colonel and assigned to organize and lead the new 2nd US Cavalry. Two years later he successfully led an expedition into Utah to confront the Mormons. During this campaign, he successfully installed a pro-US government in Utah without any bloodshed. In reward for conducting this delicate operation, he was brevetted to brigadier general. After spending much of 1860, in Kentucky, Johnston accepted command of the Department of the Pacific and sailed for California on December 21. As the secession crisis worsened through the winter, Johnston was pressured by Californians to take his command east to fight the Confederates. Unswayed, he finally resigned his commission on April 9, 1861, after hearing that Texas had left the Union. Remaining in his post until June when his successor arrived, he traveled across the desert and reached Richmond, VA in early September. The Civil War Begins Warmly received by his friend President Jefferson Davis, Johnston was appointed a full general in the Confederate Army with a date of rank of May 31, 1861. The second-most senior officer in the army, he was placed in command of the Western Department with orders to defend between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. Raising the Army of Mississippi, Johnstons command was soon spread thin over this wide frontier. General Albert S. Johnston. Library of Congress Though recognized as one of the prewar armys elite officers, Johnston was criticized in early 1862, when Union campaigns in the West met with success. Following the loss of Forts Henry Donelson and the Union capture of Nashville, Johnston began concentrating his forces, along with those of General P.G.T. Beauregard at Corinth, MS, with the goal of striking at Major General Ulysses S. Grants army at Pittsburg Landing, TN. Shiloh Attacking on April 6, 1862, Johnston opened the Battle of Shiloh by catching Grants army by surprise and quickly overrunning its camps. Leading from the front, Johnston was seemingly everywhere on the field directing his men. During one charge around 2:30 PM, he was wounded behind the right knee, mostly likely from friendly fire. Not thinking the injury serious he released his personal surgeon to aid several wounded soldiers. A short time later, Johnston realized that his boot was filling with blood as the bullet had nicked his popliteal artery. Feeling faint, he was taken from his horse and placed in a small ravine where he bled to death a short time later. With his loss, Beauregard ascended to command and was driven from the field by Union counterattacks the next day. Believed to be their best general General Robert E. Lee would not emerge until that summer), Johnstons death was mourned across the Confederacy. First buried in New Orleans, Johnston was the highest-ranking casualty on either side during the war. In 1867, his body was moved to the Texas State Cemetery in Austin.

Learning About German Dialects

Learning About German Dialects Youre not always going to hear  Hochdeutsch German-learners who step off the plane in Austria, Germany, or Switzerland for the first time are in for a shock if they know nothing about  German dialects. Although standard German (Hochdeutsch) is widespread and commonly used in typical business or tourist situations, there always comes a time when you suddenly cant understand a word, even if your German is pretty good. When that happens, it usually means you have encountered one of the many dialects of German. (Estimates on the number of German dialects vary, but range from about 50 to 250. The large discrepancy has to do with the difficulty in defining the term dialect.) This is a perfectly understandable phenomenon if you realize that in the early middle ages in what is now the German-speaking part of Europe there existed ONLY the many different dialects of the various Germanic tribes. There was no common German language until much later. In fact, the first common language, Latin, was introduced by the Roman incursions into the Germanic region, and one can see the result in German words like  Kaiser  (emperor, from Caesar) and  Student. This linguistic patchwork also has a political parallel: there was no country known as Germany until 1871, much later than most of the other European nation-states. However, the German-speaking part of Europe does not always coincide with current political borders. In parts of eastern France in the region known as Elsace-Lorraine (Elsaß) a German dialect known as Alsatian (Elsssisch) is still spoken today. Linguists divide the variations of German and other languages into three main categories:Dialekt/Mundart  (dialect),  Umgangssprache  (idiomatic language, local usage), and Hochsprache/Hochdeutsch  (standard German). But even linguists disagree about the precise borderlines between each category. Dialects exist almost exclusively in spoken form (despite transliteration for research and cultural reasons), making it difficult to pin down where one dialect ends and another begins. The Germanic word for dialect,  Mundart,  emphasizes the word of mouth quality of a dialect (Mund   mouth). Linguists may disagree on a precise definition of just what a dialect is, but anyone who has heard the  Plattdeutsch  spoken in the north or the  Bairisch  spoken in the south knows what a dialect is. Anyone who has spent more than a day in German Switzerland knows that the spoken language,Schwyzerdytsch,  is quite different from the  Hochdeutsch  seen in Swiss newspapers such as the  Neue Zà ¼rcher Zeitung  . All educated speakers of German learn  Hochdeutsch  or standard German. That standard German may come in various flavors or accents (which is not the same thing as a dialect).  Austrian German, Swiss (standard) German, or the  Hochdeutsch  heard in Hamburg versus that heard in Munich may have a slightly different sound, but everyone can understand each other. Newspapers, books, and other publications from Hamburg to Vienna all display the same language, despite minor regional variations. (There are fewer differences than those between British and American English.) One way to define dialects is to compare which words are used for the same thing. For example, the common word for mosquito in German may take any of the following forms in various German dialects/regions:  Gelse, Moskito, Mugge, Mà ¼cke, Schnake, Staunze.  Not only that, but the same word may take on a different meaning, depending on where you are.  Eine (Stech-) Mà ¼cke  in northern Germany is a mosquito. In parts of Austria the same word refers to a gnat or house fly, while  Gelsen  are mosquitos. In fact, there is no one universal term for some German words. A jelly-filled doughnut is called by three different German names, not counting other dialectical variations.Berliner, Krapfen  and  Pfannkuchen  all mean doughnut. But a  Pfannkuchen  in southern Germany is a pancake or crepe. In Berlin the same word refers to a doughnut, while in Hamburg a doughnut is a  Berliner. In the next part of this feature, well look more closely at the six major German dialect branches that extend from the German-Danish border south to Switzerland and  Austria, including a German dialect map. Youll also find some interesting related links for German dialects. German Dialects If you spend any time in almost any part of the German  Sprachraum  (language area) you will come into contact with a local dialect or idiom. In some cases, knowing the local form of German can be a matter of survival, while in others its more a matter of colorful fun. Below we briefly outline the six major German dialect branches-running generally from north to south. All are subdivided into more variations within each branch. Friesisch (Frisian) Frisian is spoken in the north of Germany along the North Sea coast. North Frisian is located just south of the border with Denmark. West Frisian extends into modern Holland, while East Frisian is spoken north of Bremen along the coast and, logically enough in the North and East Frisian islands just off the coast. Niederdeutsch (Low German/Plattdeutsch) Low German (also called Netherlandic or Plattdeutsch) gets its name from the geographic fact that the land is low (nether,  nieder; flat,  platt). It extends from the Dutch border eastward to the former German territories of Eastern Pommerania and East Prussia. It is divided into many variations including: Northern Lower Saxon, Westphalian, Eastphalian, Brandenburgian, East Pommeranian, Mecklenburgian, etc. This dialect often more closely resembles English (to which it is related) than standard German. Mitteldeutsch (Middle German) The Middle German region stretches across Germanys middle from Luxembourg (where the Letztebuergisch sub-dialect of  Mitteldeutsch  is spoken) eastward into present-day Poland and the region of Silesia (Schlesien). There are too many sub-dialects to list here, but the main division is between West Middle German and East Middle German. Frnkisch (Frankish) The East Frankish dialect is spoken along Germanys Main river pretty much in Germanys very center. Forms such as South Frankish and Rhine Frankish extend northwesterly towards the Moselle river. Alemannisch (Alemannic) Spoken in Switzerland north along the Rhine, extending farther north from Basel to Freiburg and almost to the city of Karlsruhe in Germany, this dialect is divided into Alsatian (west along the Rhine in todays France), Swabian, Low and High Alemannic. The Swiss form of Alemannic has become an important standard spoken language in that country, in addition to  Hochdeutsch, but it is also divided into two main forms (Bern and Zurich). Bairisch-Ãâ€"sterreichisch (Bavarian-Austrian) Because the Bavarian-Austrian region was more unified politically-for over a thousand years-it is also more linguistically uniform than the German north. There are some subdivisions (South, Middle, and North Bavarian, Tyrolian, Salzburgian), but the differences are not very significant.   Note: The word  Bairisch  refers to the language, while the adjective  bayrisch  or  bayerisch  refers to  Bayern  (Bavaria) the place, as in  der Bayerische Wald, the Bavarian Forest.